Which Of The Following Is Not Primarily Controlled By State Governments?

Functions of the Land

Various schools of thought consider the state to be either a neutral entity separated from society or an immoral partisan instrument.

Learning Objectives

Classify the different political theories concerning the function of the land in society

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

Liberal and conservative theories of the state tend to see the state as a neutral entity separated from society and the economy. These theories treat the economic arrangement of capitalism equally a given.
Marxist theories see the land as a partisan instrument that primarily serves the interests of the upper class. These theories emphasize the relationship betwixt political power and economical power.
Anarchists believe that the state apparatus should be completely dismantled and an culling prepare of social relations created. These social relations would not be based on state ability at all.
Pluralists view the land equally a neutral body that simply enacts the will of whichever groups dominate the electoral process.
A polyarchy, a concept adult by Robert Dahl, refers to the idea that the modern democratic land's acts in response to the pressures applied to information technology by a multifariousness of organized interests.

Key Terms

polyarchy: a government past many persons, of whatever society or class
pluralist: an advocate of pluralism (in all senses)
anarchist: One who believes in or advocates the absence of bureaucracy and dominance in most forms (compare anarchism), specially one who works toward the realization of such.

The State

A state is an organized political community acting under a authorities. States may be classified equally sovereign if they are not dependent on, or bailiwick to, whatsoever other power or state. States are considered to be subject to external sovereignty, or hegemony, if their ultimate sovereignty lies in another state. A federated land is a territorial, constitutional community that forms office of a federation. Such states differ from sovereign states, in that they take transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government.

The United States: Americans live in a federal arrangement of fifty states that, together, make up the United Sates of America.

Theories of the Land

Most political theories of the country can roughly be classified into ii categories. The first, which includes liberal or conservative theories, treats commercialism as a given, and concentrates on the function of states in a capitalist gild. Theories of this diversity view the state as a neutral entity distinct from both society and the economic system.

Marxist Theory

Marxist theory, on the other hand, sees politics as intimately intermingled with economical relations, and emphasizes the human relationship between economical ability and political power. Marxists view the state as a partisan musical instrument that primarily serves the interests of the upper grade. Marx and Engels were clear that communism's goal was a classless society in which the state would have "withered away. " For Marxist theorists, the role of the not-socialist state is determined by its function in the global backer society. Marx'southward early writings portrayed the state every bit "parasitic," built upon the superstructure of the economic system and working confronting the public interest. He believed that the land mirrored societal form relations, that information technology regulated and repressed class struggle, and that it was a tool of political power and domination for the ruling class.

Anarchism

Anarchism is a political philosophy that considers states immoral and instead promotes a stateless society, anarchy. Anarchists believe that the land is inherently an musical instrument of domination and repression, no thing who is in control of it. Anarchists believe that the land apparatus should be completely dismantled and an alternative gear up of social relations created, which would be unrelated to state power.

Anarchists at the G20 Summit in London, 2009: Anarchists oppose state command.

Pluralism

Pluralists view social club equally a collection of individuals and groups competing for political ability. They then view the state as a neutral trunk that merely enacts the will of whichever grouping dominates the balloter process. Within the pluralist tradition, Robert Dahl developed the theory of the state as a neutral arena for contending interests. He likewise viewed governmental agencies as only another ready of competing interest groups. The pluralist arroyo suggests that the modern democratic state acts in response to pressures that are applied by a diverseness of organized interests. Dahl chosen this kind of state a polyarchy. Pluralism has been challenged on the ground that it is not supported by empirical show.

Characteristics of the State

A land is an organized political customs acting under a government. States differ in sovereignty, governance, geography, and interests.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the key characteristics that define the state

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Federated states differ from sovereign states in that they accept transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal regime.
Under the dominion of law, no ane person can rule and fifty-fifty top regime officials are bound past the law.
The "nation" refers to a large geographical area and the people living there who perceive themselves equally having a mutual identity.
The nation land is a state that cocky-identifies as deriving its political legitimacy from serving equally a sovereign entity for a nation as a sovereign territorial unit.
Civil society is the arena outside of the family, the state, and the market where people acquaintance to advance common interests.

Primal Terms

civil society: All of the institutions, voluntary organizations, and corporate bodies that are less than the state merely greater than the family.
nation state: a political entity (a state) associated with a item cultural entity (a nation)
Sovereign states: A sovereign land is a political organisation with a centralized government that has supreme independent authority over a geographic area.

States may exist classified as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to, whatsoever other power or country. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in some other state. A federated state is a territorial and ramble community forming role of a federation. Such states differ from sovereign states, in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal authorities.

The concept of the land is unlike from the concept of government. A government is the particular group of people that controls the state apparatus at a given time. In other words, governments are the means through which state ability is employed; for example, past applying the dominion of law. The rule of police is a legal saying whereby governmental decisions are fabricated past applying known legal principles. The dominion of police force is rule non past one person, as in an absolute monarchy, but by laws, every bit in a autonomous commonwealth; no one person can rule and even superlative regime officials are under and ruled past the law.

The concept of the state is as well unlike from the concept of a nation, which refers to a large geographical area, and the people therein who perceive themselves as having a common identity. The state is a political and geopolitical entity; the nation is a cultural or indigenous entity. The nation state is a state that self-identifies as deriving its political legitimacy from serving every bit a sovereign entity for a nation as a sovereign territorial unit. The term nation state implies that the two geographically coincide.

In classical thought, the state was identified with political society and civil society as a form of political community. In contrast, modern thought distinguishes the nation state equally a political social club from ceremonious society as a form of economic society. Civil order is the loonshit outside of the family, the state, and the market where people associate to advance common interests. It is sometimes considered to include the family and the private sphere and then referred to as the third sector of lodge, singled-out from government and business.

Heads of Country: In the United States, the land is governed past a authorities headed by an elected president. Pictured here are, from left to right, Presidents George H.W. Bush, Barack Obama, George W. Bush-league, Bill Clinton, and Jimmy Carter.

Citizenship Rights

Citizenship carries both rights and responsibilities, as it describes a person with legal rights within a given political order.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the rights and responsibilities of citizenship held by individuals

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

Citizenship is the state of being a member of a detail social, political, national, or human resources community. The term describing all citizens as a whole is denizens.
Citizenship generally carries with it the right of political participation in a customs, including voting, participating in government, and receiving state protection.
A person who does not have citizenship in whatsoever land is stateless.
Many people are presumed to be citizens of a nation if they were born within the physical geographic territory of the nation. This policy is called, by the Latin legal term. jus soli, meaning "right of soil. " A jus sanguinis policy grants citizenship based on ancestry or ethnicity.
Nationalization is the acquisition of citizenship by somebody who was not a citizen of that country at the fourth dimension of nativity.
The term "citizen of the world" has been applied to people who have fewer ties to a particular nation and more than of a sense of belonging to the world in general.

Fundamental Terms

nationalization: Nationalization is the procedure of taking an industry or assets into government ownership by a national authorities or state
jus soli: A right past which nationality or citizenship tin be recognized to any individual built-in in the territory of the related state.
jus sanguinis: Jus sanguinis (Latin: right of blood) is a social policy by which citizenship is non determined by place of birth, but rather by having ane or both parent who are citizens of the nation. It contrasts with jus soli (Latin for "right of soil").

Legally, citizenship denotes a link between an individual and a state. Nether international law, citizenship is synonymous to nationality, although the 2 may have unlike meanings under national law. A person who does not have citizenship in any state is stateless.

A person is generally presumed to be a citizen of a nation if one or both of their parents are besides a citizen of said nation; this is oftentimes called jus sanguinis (Latin legal term), meaning "right of claret. " A jus sanguinis policy ways grants citizenship based on beginnings or ethnicity, and is related to the concept of a nation state common in Europe. Many people are presumed to be citizens of a nation if they were born inside the physical geographic territory of the nation. This policy is chosen by jus soli (Latin legal term), meaning "correct of soil. " These first two factors are usually lumped together nether the term birthright citizenship.

Dual Citizenship: Some people may exist citizens of more than than i country.

Nationalization is the conquering of citizenship past somebody who was not a citizen of that country at the time of birth. In general, basic requirements for nationalization are that the bidder agree a legal status every bit a full-time resident for a minimum period of time, and that the bidder promises to obey and uphold that state's laws, to which an oath or pledge of fidelity is sometimes added. Citizenship tin besides be obtained by marrying a citizen, which is termed jure matrimonii.

Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and responsibilities. In this sense, citizenship was described as "a packet of rights — primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive sure protection from the community, as well as obligations. " Citizenship is a status in society. It generally describes a person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost ever has an element of exclusion, pregnant that some people are not citizens; this distinction can sometimes be very important, or non important, depending on a item society.

More generally, citizenship is seen as the relation betwixt an individual and a particular nation. Sure entities, however, cross national boundaries, such as trade organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multi-national corporations, and sometimes the term "citizen of the world" has been applied in to people who have fewer ties to a particular nation and more than of a sense of belonging to the world in general.

Naturalization Anniversary, Salem, MA, Citizenship Day 2007: New citizens are welcomed during a naturalization ceremony in Salem, MA.

State Germination

Theories explaining the origins and formation of states all circumduct around the power to centralize power in a sustainable mode.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the formation of states and centralization of authority in modern history

Cardinal Takeaways

Cardinal Points

States start arose when agronomics and writing made centralized power possible.
In hydraulic civilizations, water and irrigation were centrally controlled, which consequently led to the general centralization of power in a despotic country.
According to the coercion theory of state formation, states formed in gild to handle the burden of fighting and defending against wars.
States take continued to grow more rational and bureaucratic, with expanding executive bureaucracies, such as the extensive cabinet system in the United States. Thus, states have evolved from relatively simple but powerful central powers to complex and highly organized institutions.

Key Terms

Hydraulic civilization: A hydraulic empire (likewise known as a hydraulic despotism, or water monopoly empire) is a social or authorities structure which maintains power and command through exclusive control over access to h2o. It arises through the need for flood control and irrigation, which requires central coordination and a specialized bureaucracy.
Centralization of power: Centralization of power occurs in governments in which power or legal say-so is exerted or coordinated by a de facto political executive to which federal states, local authorities, and smaller units are considered subject. In a national context, centralization occurs in the transfer of power to a typically sovereign nation state.

Country Formation and the Centralization of Power

Today we take it for granted that different societies are governed by different states, merely this has not e'er been the example. Since the belatedly nineteeth century, virtually the entirety of the world'due south inhabitable land has been parceled up into areas with more or less definite borders claimed by diverse states. Before, quite large land areas had been either unclaimed or uninhabited, or inhabited by nomadic peoples who were non organized as states. In fact, for most of human being history, people have lived in stateless societies, characterized by a lack of full-bodied authorization, and the absence of large inequalities in economic and political power.

The first known states were created in Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Republic of india, People's republic of china, the Americas (e.one thousand., Aztec culture, Inca civilisation). About agree that the primeval states emerged when agronomics and writing made it possible to centralize power in a durable fashion. Agriculture allowed communities to settle and besides led to class sectionalization: some people devoted all their fourth dimension to nutrient production, while others were freed to specialize in other activities, such as writing or ruling. Thus, states, as an establishment, were a social invention. Political sociologists proceed to argue the origins of the country and the processes of land formation.

Competing Theories of Country Formation

Hydraulic Civilization

According to one early theory of state formation, the centralized state was adult to administer large public works systems (such as irrigation systems) and to regulate circuitous economies. This theory was articulated by High german American historian Karl Baronial Wittfogel in his book 1957 Oriental Despotis. Wittfogel argued that virtually of the earliest states were formed in hydraulic civilizations, by which he meant civilizations where leaders controlled people by controlling the water supply. Often, these civilizations relied on complex irrigation systems that had to be centrally managed. The people, therefore, had good reason to give control to a central state, but in giving up command over the irrigation system, they also gave up control over their own livelihoods and, thus, the central state gained immense control over people in full general. Although Wittfogel's theory is well known, it has also been criticized as inaccurate. Modern archaeological and anthropological evidence shows that many early on societies were not as centralized, despotic, or unequal equally the hydraulic theory would propose.

Coercion, War, and the Country

An culling theory of state formation focuses on the ascent of more modern nation-states and explains their rise by arguing they became necessary for leveraging the resources necessary to fight and defend against wars. Sociologist Charles Tilly is the best known theorist in this tradition. Tilly examined political, social, and technological change in Europe from the Middle Ages to the present and attempted to explain the unprecedented success of the nation-land as the dominant form of land on Earth. In other words, instead of asking (like Wittfogel) where the very showtime states came from, Tilly asked where the types of states with which we're almost familiar came from, and why they became so common.

According to Tilly's theory, war machine innovation in pre-modern Europe (especially gunpowder and mass armies) fabricated war extremely expensive. Equally a issue, only states with a sufficient amount of capital and a big population could afford to pay for their security and ultimately survive in the hostile environment. Thus, the modern states and its institutions (such as taxes) were created to enable war making.

Ancient Persian and Greek Warriors: States may have formed to help societies organize for war.

Rationalization and Bureaucracy

Still some other theory of country germination focuses on the long, slow, process of rationalization and bureaucratization that began with the invention of writing. The Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the land, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. In Medieval Europe, bullwork furthered the rationalization and formalization of the land. Feudalism was based on the human relationship between lord and vassal, which became key to social organization and, indeed to land organization. The Medieval state was organized by Estates, or parliaments in which key social groups negotiated with the king almost legal and economic matters. Since then, states have continued to grow more rational and bureaucratic, with expanding executive bureaucracies, such as the extensive cabinet system in the U.s.. Thus, states have evolved from relatively simple but powerful cardinal powers to circuitous and highly organized institutions.

The Tigris-Euphrates Watershed in Mesopotamia: In hydraulic civilizations, command over water concentrated power in central despotic states.